Team-Based Design

The following sections comprise this document:

Prominence of Teams in the Workplace

The 1990s have witnessed a dramatic increase in the use of teams in the workplace. This increase has been one of the responses of American organizations to increased domestic and international competition and to rapid changes in technology and management practice. Teams of various sorts have become a prominent feature of strategies designed to increase organizational effectiveness. These have included:

1. Self Directed Work Teams

2. Continuous Quality Improvement Teams

3. Participative Management

4. Cross Functional Design Teams

In this course, you will learn about teams through your participation on cross functional product design teams. It is your instructors’ hope that as a result of your participation, you will leave Michigan State University better educated for participation in the many teams you will encounter in the modern workplace.

The Nature of Teams

Teams are defined as high performing task groups whose members are actively interdependent and share common performance objectives. This definition suggests that only those groups who perform at high levels due to their collective efforts should be considered teams. Further, team members are "interdependent" such that each member’s contributions are essential to the work of other members and to the achievement of the team’s goals. And finally, a group is only a team if the members have at least one or more common objectives. In this course your instructors have attempted to structure a design project and related performance requirements which require the contributions of students in broad areas. We understand that you are not yet experts in an area, and we also expect that, because of the nature of the design project, you will be able to make some contributions in other areas as the work of your project team continues. Certain common requirements will impose common performance objectives, but there is also need of a personal commitment by each individual team member, if your team is to be effective.

• Advantages - Teams can have a number of advantages over individual effort. These can include the following:

1. A highly motivated work climate - team spirit
2. Shared ownership of work tasks - flexible delegation of tasks
3. Faster response to changing requirements
4. High creativity/innovation & better decision-making
5. Improved cross-functional communication/detection of problems
6. Higher learning in team members from contact with others

• Disadvantages - Teams are not without hazards. These can include the following:

1. Team meetings can be time-consuming - consensus-building takes time
2. Poor team leadership can produce a lack of team effectiveness
3. Many people lack team-member skills
4. Differences in commitment/effort can lead to conflicts & resentment
5. Disciplinary differences can lead to communication difficulties
6. Some teams become overly cohesive and screen out relevant information

Your Team Experience in This Course

You will learn about teaming in several ways. Most prominently, you will experience teaming through your participation on one of this course’s design teams. You will be expected to work together to design a consumer product in a fashion that is informed by issues of market, cost, engineering, and design. Through this process you will gain experience as a member of your design team.

You will also learn about teaming through information about teams via reading assignments, lectures, and structured group exercises. Each didactic (instructional) element on teaming is intended to clarify aspects of your ongoing experience as a team member.

Finally, you will be asked to reflect upon your experience as a team member and your growing understanding of team dynamics. Through journal assignments and team exercises you will be helped to develop and use a conceptual framework and personal perspective that will enable you to be a thoughtful (as well as a skilled) work team participant. Although it is typically hidden from view, reflectiveness about all of one’s ongoing vocational activities is a key feature of mature professionalism.

Effective teams are characterized by certain processes. Independent of the kind of work the team is doing (product design, strategic planning, quality improvement, etc.) effectiveness results from ongoing features of the team that facilitate teams members working together productively. Those team processes are summarized below:

1. Collective Decision Making.

Effective teams fully discuss decisions which will have an impact on how the team does its work, and they generally arrive at decisions by consensus. On ineffective teams decisions get made by fiat when one team member strongly asserts a position and no one objects (even though silent members do not agree with the decision). Decisions arrived at by consensus generally have the acceptance and support of the whole team.

2. Collaboration/Interchangeability.

Within effective teams, members help one another with the work of the team, even when the tasks are outside a member’s area of expertise (‘interchangeability’). On ineffective teams, members tend to work independently and will not do a task if it appears to fall outside their area of expertise or functional role (It's not an electrical engineering issue, so I’m not going to do it.)

3. Appreciation of Conflict/Differences.

Effective teams expect conflicts and differences of opinion and use them to improve decisions and explore alternatives. Conflicts are openly addressed and resolved. On ineffective teams, member conflicts are avoided or "papered over" in an attempt to preserve surface agreement.

4. Balance of Participation.

Members of effective teams learn to balance the time demands of the team with their other responsibilities. Other team members accept and help compensate for circumstances in a team member’s life which require a temporary cutback of effort on team tasks. On ineffective teams, one or two members do most of the work, resent it, but never confront members whose level of effort is low.

5. Focus.

Effective teams are able to maintain a focus on its key goals and objectives and to pace itself accordingly. When the team falls behind in a certain area, everyone pitches in to get back on schedule. Ineffective teams spend too much time on early tasks and find they have little time when deadlines approach. When progress is not being made in a given area, everyone notices but no one offers to help out.

6. Open Communication.

Effective team members let each other know what is happening that might affect the team’s work. They inform the team leader when they will miss a meeting or be late and they keep other members informed about their progress or lack of progress. They are aware of decisions or information that might affect others’ work and they let others know what is going on. Communication is open and spontaneous in team meetings.

7. Mutual Support.

Members of effective teams are supportive of each other. They let others know that they appreciate others’ efforts and ideas, and they will help out as needed. On ineffective teams, members work on their own and show little interest in the work others are doing unless it directly impacts their own work.

8. Team Spirit.

Members of effective teams feel identified with their team and experience feelings of pride and loyalty. On ineffective teams, the team is just a place to do work or, worse, an impediment to getting one’s own goals accomplished on one’s own.

Teaming Objectives

The following teaming objectives are suggested for team-based design courses:

• Teams are capable of making better decisions than individuals.
• Teams encounter expected difficulties that make teamwork a challenge.
• Effective teams have some common features:

1. Good intermember communication
2. Individual commitment to and identification with the team
3. A moderate level of interchangeability; willingness to help others
4. Tolerance for others’ differences, appreciation of diverse perspectives
5. Explicit task leadership, often shared among team members
6. Process focus - willingness to discuss and change the team’s processes
7. A clear accountability structure that holds team members accountable for both their individual contributions and the team’s performance
8. An environment that offers expertise and resources that the team needs but is unable to generate from within the team
9. Presence on the team of a temporal frame of reference for understanding how the team will accomplish its work over time and how the component processes can be coordinated

Effective teams are by necessity made up of individuals who maintain a strong sense of commitment to the team, as well as to the efforts of the team. Individual commitment to the team has been described as a sense of loyalty and dedication to the team, or an unrestrained sense of excitement and enthusiasm about the team. The following are several attributes of individual team members who are strongly committed to the team and its goals.

1. Willing to commit time and effort.

Team members who are highly committed to the team will frequently expend considerable amounts of time on the activities of the team. Committed team members are willing to sacrifice time for other activities in order to maintain the efforts of the team. Such team members also exert considerable amounts of effort in fulfilling their responsibilities to the team, ensuring that their individual work is of top quality.

2. Willing to work hard.

Committed team members are not going to let a little hard work scare them. If the team has a great deal of work to do in order to meet a pending deadline, committed team members will take on the work without hesitation. The team’s goals are of utmost importance, and the highly committed team member will not balk at the workload, but will put in the hours and effort to get the work done.

3. Willing to identify team membership with self.

Although it is the individual who contributes, it is necessary that team members come to identify themselves as being part of the team. A voluntary redefinition of the self occurs which includes membership on the team. The team and the self are no longer two totally distinct entities; the one is part of the other. Therefore, the goals of the team become the goals of the individual.

4. Willing to put team goals ahead of personal goals.

Committed team members will frequently put the goals and needs of the team ahead of any personal needs. Individual interests are not pursued at the expense of the team activities. The committed team member will find a balance between his/her own endeavors and the work of the team, such that the team’s goals are often given priority. Additionally, the more involved team members are in team activities, the committed to the group’s goals they will become.

Team member diversity, where members have different backgrounds, experiences, skills, views of the work, etc., is generally advantageous for a team’s task accomplishment. Everyone’s experiences, training, personalities, values, needs, skills, and abilities differ to some degree. As a result, everyone sees and approaches the world in a somewhat different way. However, to the extent that a team is fairly homogeneous or nondiverse, i.e., members have similar backgrounds, experiences, values, etc., perspectives on things are also fairly similar. As a result, homogeneous teams run the risk of approaching problems with narrow perspectives that go unchallenged. In contrast, diverse views are advantageous for teams addressing complex problems requiring creative or innovative solutions. A diverse team can appreciate the problem and possible solutions from many different angles.

Unfortunately, managing membership diversity also represents a challenge for teams. Diversity makes it more difficult for members to communicate with each other. It also leads to more conflict in ideas, preferences, and styles and makes the development of team cohesiveness more difficult. Cohesiveness refers to the degree to which people identify with the team and value their membership on it. Because of their differences, diverse team members often find it hard to feel comfortable with each other.

Because diversity and homogeneity both offer advantages, teams need to balance them so that they have the right amounts of heterogeneity and homogeneity. Teams need enough heterogeneity to fully appreciate the wholeness of the task facing them, and they need enough homogeneity to facilitate communication, reaching agreement, and the development of cohesiveness. Importantly, it is possible to be heterogeneous on some personal dimensions, such as educational background, and homogeneous on others, such as values and interest in the team problem.

Most students hate to give other team members feedback about their performance. Yet most also say that they appreciate receiving feedback, because it helps them improve and is a good "reality check."

In this class you are being asked to do something that you are probably uncomfortable doing (giving a fellow student feedback) and which you are possibly not thrilled to receive. What are some of the typical reasons people hate giving feedback?

The Thinking of People Who Hate Giving Feedback

• If I am honest and point out a weakness, it will hurt their feelings; it will make them feel bad about themselves and me.
• Everybody always says they want feedback, but they really don’t. And even if they say they do want the feedback, it still hurts their feelings.

If you think like this, you may be right, but there is a slightly different way of looking at all this which may make it easier for you to give feedback.

The Thinking of People Who Find Giving Feedback Tolerable

• If giving feedback is appropriate and expected in a situation (and it is in this course), then my responsibility is to make sure I try to give accurate, helpful feedback. It is not my responsibility to make sure the other person feels good about or even appreciates what I am saying to them. How they choose to react to my feedback is up to them. They are, ultimately, responsible for whether or not they beat themselves up about what I’ve said to them. I don’t "make them" feel bad. They get to do that to themselves (or not!).

Accuracy of The Feedback

• How do I know that what I’m saying is not just my own quirky perspective?

You are right! You don’t know if you are accurate, but you don’t really have to worry about this. You are not alone. You are giving feedback as a member of a team, and the other team members will either confirm or disconfirm the accuracy of your feedback.

Be Helpful

We understand that you still have to work together on this team after the feedback session is over. If you really believe that the feedback you are thinking of giving might be hurtful, then don’t give it! The only legitimate reason for giving feedback to a fellow team member is to increase the overall effectiveness of your team. Traumatizing a team member is not going to make the team any better.

Helpful Hints

Here are some hints that can make feedback more helpful:

• Make sure the person actually wants feedback. If they don’t, either say nothing or say something nice.
• Be specific and focus on things the person is able to change.
• Be descriptive rather than evaluative - if you provide your own reactions as part of the feedback, present them as data not as an accusation or judgement. ("Let me tell you how I react when you act that way.")

Protocol for Formal Feedback Sessions

1. Decide what the feedback is going to be about (e.g., the performance of the team leader over the past week; performance of members since last evaluations).
2. Start with something you’d like them to continue doing.
3. Now move on to the "constructive" feedback and describe: a) something they did that you would like to see them do less of, or b) something they did a little that you’d like to see more of, or c) something they failed to do that you’d like them to start doing.
4. Next, other members should clarify the feedback that has been given, if they see it differently. If they agree with the feedback, then they can gently confirm it, but they should avoid what might be perceived as "ganging up" on the person receiving the feedback.
5. Work around the team until everyone has received feedback who is supposed to receive it.
6. Don’t worry about being comprehensive here. You don’t have to give people feedback about everything you notice all at once. And some things are best left unsaid entirely.

Guidelines for Receiving Feedback

1. Evaluate Your Own Performance. In anticipation of others’ feedback, evaluate your own performance as a leader.
2. Breathe. This is simple but effective advice. Our bodies are conditioned to react to stressful situations as though they were physical assaults. Taking full, deep breaths forces your body to relax and allows your brain to maintain greater alertness.
3. Listen Carefully. Don’t interrupt or otherwise discourage the feedback giver.
4. Ask for Clarification/Don’t Challenge. Ask for specific examples that illustrate the feedback you are being given.
5. Acknowledge the Feedback. Paraphrase the message in your own words to let the person giving you the feedback know that you have heard and understood what was said.
6. Acknowledge Valid Points. Agree with what you believe to be true and acknowledge what you think is possibly true. Acknowledge the other’s point of view when you disagree (I understand how you might get that impression.). Try to understand their point of view.
7. Sort It Out Later. You may need time to check the feedback with others who know you and for sorting out the feedback in your own mind. Remember that the feedback you receive is only data about how others view your performance. You get to decide how to evaluate that data and how you want to react to it.

It is not uncommon for teams to encounter problems as they attempt to accomplish their goals. Fortunately, the types of problems are not new; they have been encountered by countless teams in the past. There are no magic solutions to these problems, but as is the case with many other difficulties, the first step in dealing with problems is to be clear about what is going wrong. Here is a list of some common team problems. As you read through them, ask yourself whether you are having any of them on your team.

1. Floundering - part way through the project you loose focus and momentum. There are many reasons for this, including: a reluctance to make critical decisions; lack of completion of a part of the project upon which others depend to be able to complete their part of the project; and unwarranted perfectionism - "if its not perfect we can’t go on."
2. Monopolizing participants - members whose influence prevents the team from taking up critical questions or deflects the team from essential tasks
3. Personalizing problems that are a function of non-personal factors - when deadlines are missed or miscommunications occur there is a natural tendency to personalize the responsibility for the problem ("Joe doesn’t have his heart in this project."). Very often the problem was caused by external factors that would have led to the same mistake, inaction, or miscommunication no matter who was involved. Often the real problem is with the way things are being done, not the person doing it.
4. Power struggles - two or more team members appear to be in a struggle for control or influence. The issue they are arguing about it not really the issue, so it cannot be solved.
5. Externalizing - deciding that the "powers that be" have made it difficult or impossible for the team to succeed.

Each of these problems, where identified, should be brought up for discussion in the team. If they can be acknowledged as real problems, most teams have the capacity to address them in a productive fashion.